No moral censure was directed at the man who enjoyed sex acts with either women or males of inferior status, as long as his behaviors revealed no weaknesses or excesses, nor infringed on the rights and prerogatives of his masculine peers. " Homosexual" and " heterosexual" did not form the primary dichotomy of Roman thinking about sexuality, and no Latin words for these concepts exist. It was considered natural and unremarkable for men to be sexually attracted to teen-aged youths of both sexes, and pederasty was condoned as long as the younger male partner was not a freeborn Roman. "Pornographic" paintings were featured among the art collections in respectable upperclass households. Prostitution was legal, public, and widespread. Roman religion promoted sexuality as an aspect of prosperity for the state, and individuals might turn to private religious practice or " magic" for improving their erotic lives or reproductive health. Some sexual attitudes and behaviors in ancient Roman culture differ markedly from those in later Western societies. Visual art was created by those of lower social status and of a greater range of ethnicity, but was tailored to the taste and inclinations of those wealthy enough to afford it, including, in the Imperial era, former slaves. But with extremely few exceptions, surviving Latin literature preserves the voices only of educated male Romans on the subject of sexuality. Roman women of the upper classes were expected to be well educated, strong of character, and active in maintaining their family's standing in society. The corresponding ideal for a woman was pudicitia, often translated as chastity or modesty, but a more positive and even competitive personal quality that displayed both her attractiveness and self-control. Virtus, "virtue", was an active masculine ideal of self-discipline, related to the Latin word for "man", vir. Roman society was patriarchal (see paterfamilias), and masculinity was premised on a capacity for governing oneself and others of lower status, not only in war and politics, but also in sexual relations. The mid-20th-century sexuality theorist Michel Foucault regarded sex throughout the Greco-Roman world as governed by restraint and the art of managing sexual pleasure. The censors- public officials who determined the social rank of individuals-had the power to remove citizens from the senatorial or equestrian order for sexual misconduct, and on occasion did so. Pudor, "shame, modesty", was a regulating factor in behavior, as were legal strictures on certain sexual transgressions in both the Republican and Imperial periods.
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In the popular imagination and culture, it is synonymous with sexual license and abuse." īut sexuality was not excluded as a concern of the mos maiorum, the traditional social norms that affected public, private, and military life. Verstraete and Provençal opine that this perspective was simply a Christian interpretation: "The sexuality of the Romans has never had good press in the West ever since the rise of Christianity. It has sometimes been assumed that "unlimited sexual license" was characteristic of ancient Rome. Sexual attitudes and behaviors in ancient Rome are indicated by art, literature, and inscriptions, and to a lesser extent by archaeological remains such as erotic artifacts and architecture. Male–female couple on the back of a bronze mirror ( ca.